.................................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ x LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES .................................................................................................... xi LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES.................................................................................................. xii GENERAL INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 Overall Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 3 Need Statement ........................................................................................................................... 3 References ................................................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 6 1.1. Bread Production .................................................................................................................. 6 1.2. Ingredients Used in Bread Formulations .............................................................................. 7 1.2.1. Major ingredients used in bread formulations ............................................................... 8 1.2.2. Minor ingredients .......................................................................................................... 9 1.2.3. Micro ingredients......................................................................................................... 10 1.2.4. Bakery improvers ........................................................................................................ 10 1.2.5. Functions dough strengtheners and reaction with protein ........................................... 13 1.2.6. Effect dough additives on dough rheology and loaf volume ....................................... 14 1.3. Health Effect and Controversies with Dough Strengtheners.............................................. 19 1.4. What is Clean Label? ......................................................................................................... 20 1.4.1. What makes a clean label? .......................................................................................... 20 1.4.2. Ingredient selection for clean label .............................................................................. 22 vii 1.5. Wheat Flour Protein and Bread Quality ............................................................................. 23 1.5.1. Dough strengtheners and protein molecular weight .................................................... 26 1.5.2. Protein Molecular weight distribution by SE –HPLC and bread quality .................... 27 1.6. References .......................................................................................................................... 30 CHAPTER 2. REPLACEMENT OF COMMERCIAL DOUGH STRENGTHENERS WITH HARD RED SPRING WHEAT FLOUR .......................................................................... 39 2.1. Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 39 2.2. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 40 2.3. Materials and Methods ....................................................................................................... 42 2.3.1. Sampling ...................................................................................................................... 42 2.3.2. Proximate composition of flours, dough, and bread crumbs ....................................... 44 2.3.3. Dough rheology measurement ..................................................................................... 44 2.3.4. Baking and bread quality ............................................................................................. 45 2.3.5. Bread firmness ............................................................................................................. 45 2.3.6. Statistical analysis ....................................................................................................... 45 2.4. Results and Discussion ....................................................................................................... 46 2.4.1. Proximate analysis of flour, dough, and bread crumb ................................................. 46 2.4.2. Effect of HRS wheat blends and additives on dough rheology ................................... 46 2.4.3. Correlation between farinograph and extensograph data ............................................ 53 2.4.4. Quality traits of the bread made of HRS wheat flour blends and additives ................ 54 2.4.5. Correlation between dough rheology and bread quality characteristics ...................... 64 2.5. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 66 2.6. References .......................................................................................................................... 67 CHAPTER 3. MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF PROTEIN EXTRACTED FROM DOUGH AND BREAD MADE OF HRS WHEAT BLEND AND ADDITIVES, AND ITS CORRELATION WITH DOUGH AND BREAD CHARACTERISTICS ................. 73